One of the wonders of Common Lisp is the generalized variable. Roughly speaking, a generalized variable is an expression that can serve as the first argument to setf. The official explanation, as given in Common Lisp the Language, 2ed., is here. A convenient way of thinking about generalized variables is that they name a place that can contain a Lisp object.
The easiest such case is a simple variable such as x. In the expression
(setf x (* x 3))
x is the name of a place that will hold a value 3 times larger than its current value after the setf is executed. Notice that since x can occur as the first argument to setf it is a (trivial) example of a generalized variable.
A meatier example is (car x). The (car x) names a place (the car of the cons x) that can hold a value. As with the previous example, we can use the name of that place to both get and set the object it contains:
(setf (car x) (* (car x) 3))
Things get interesting when we try to use setf in macros. For example, suppose we want to write a macro that implements the C += operator. We might try something like
(defmacro += (x y) `(setf ,x (+ ,x ,y)))
This seems to work pretty well.
CL-USER> (let ((a #(2 4 6 8)) (i 2))
(+= (aref a i) 3)
a)
#(2 4 9 8)
But suppose we want to increment two entries in a row
(defun incr2 (a i) (+= (aref a i) 3) (+= (aref a (incf i)) 3)) CL-USER> (let ((a #(2 4 6 8)) (i 1)) (incr2 a i) a) #(2 7 11 8)
What happened? Instead of #(2 7 9 8) we got #(2 7 11 8). The experienced macro writer will see immediately that the problem is that the += macro evaluates its first argument twice. Most of the time, as in the example before last, that doesn’t matter but in the last example it causes i to be incremented twice. Expanding the macro call (+= (aref a (incf i)) 3) shows what happened
CL-USER> (macroexpand '(+= (aref a (incf i)) 3)) (CCL::ASET A (INCF I) (+ (AREF A (INCF I)) 3)) T
The first (incf i) increments i to 2 so that the result will be stored in the 3rd slot of the array. The second (incf i) increments i to 3 so that we add 3 to the 4th slot of the array and store 11 in slot 3.
The usual way of handling this sort of thing is to evaluate the variable once into a temporary and then use the temporary in the rest of the macro. But that doesn’t work here because setf is itself a macro and needs the name of the place to figure out how to get and store the value. Fortunately, there’s an easy way of addressing this problem for the += macro. Instead of our previous definition, we use
(define-modify-macro += (y) +)
What’s happening here is not obvious but this says to create a macro named += that takes two arguments, the place to be set and y, operates on them with +, and stores the result in place. See the Common Lisp HyperSpec for the details on define-modify-macro.
With this definition of += things work correctly
CL-USER> (let ((a #(2 4 6 8)) (i 1))
(+= (aref a (incf i)) 3)
a)
#(2 4 9 8)
In this example, place is (aref a (incf i)) so the result is equivalent to
(let ((i (incf i)))
(setf (aref a i) (+ (aref a i) 3)))
although that is not the actual expansion.
Next time, we’ll look at some macros using setf that require more general methods. After that, it will be easier to see what define-modify-macro is actually doing.